Position, displacement, velocity and acceleration are represented verbally, mathematically and graphically. Students use constant-acceleration models and extend them to projectiles and two-dimensional motion.

Newton's laws, free-body diagrams and common contact forces explain changes in motion. Momentum, impulse, collisions, explosions and circular motion connect force to interactions over time.

Work links forces to energy transfers, while conservation methods simplify complex motion. Students analyse kinetic, gravitational and elastic energy, efficiency and power.

Torque, angular kinematics and moment of inertia extend mechanics to rotation. Rotational energy, angular momentum and rolling motion are treated quantitatively.

Reference frames lead from Galilean transformations to the postulates of special relativity. Students study simultaneity, time dilation, length contraction and relativistic energy-momentum relationships.

Temperature and internal energy are distinguished through particle behaviour. Calorimetry, phase change, conduction, convection and radiation quantify energy transfer.

Black-body radiation, Wien's law and the Stefan-Boltzmann law build an energy-balance model of Earth. Absorption, emission, albedo and greenhouse gases show how the model responds to change.

The ideal-gas equation connects pressure, volume, temperature and amount of substance. Kinetic theory explains pressure and temperature microscopically and clarifies the model's limits.

The first law tracks heating, work and internal energy through thermodynamic processes. Entropy and the second law establish limits on heat engines and energy conversion.

Charge flow, potential difference and resistance are developed through circuit models. Students analyse resistivity, series and parallel circuits, power, emf and internal resistance.

Restoring effects produce periodic motion with characteristic displacement, velocity and acceleration relationships. Energy exchange, pendulums and mass-spring systems connect the model to real oscillators.

Amplitude, wavelength, frequency and speed describe transverse and longitudinal waves. Wavefronts, rays, intensity, polarization and the electromagnetic spectrum extend the model.

Reflection, refraction, diffraction and superposition explain how waves behave at boundaries and apertures. Interference patterns provide quantitative evidence for wave behaviour.

Reflected waves form nodes, antinodes and allowed modes on strings and in air columns. Resonance connects driving frequency, natural frequency and energy transfer.

Relative motion changes the observed frequency of waves. Students interpret wavefronts and apply the effect to sound, radar, astronomy and medical contexts.

Newtonian gravitation is expressed through field strength, potential and potential energy. Circular orbits, satellite motion and Kepler's laws connect local forces to planetary systems.

Charges and currents create electric and magnetic fields that act on other charges and conductors. Field lines, equipotentials, Coulomb's law and magnetic force laws support quantitative analysis.

Uniform electric fields accelerate charged particles while magnetic fields bend their paths. Crossed fields, mass spectrometers and accelerators apply these ideas.

Changing magnetic flux produces emf according to Faraday's law, with direction set by Lenz's law. Generators, transformers, alternating current and power transmission provide major applications.

Scattering and spectra reveal nuclear structure and discrete atomic energy levels. Photon absorption and emission show both the usefulness and limits of atomic models.

Photons, matter waves and the photoelectric effect establish wave-particle duality. Probability, uncertainty and tunnelling develop the modern quantum description.

Random nuclear decay is analysed through activity, half-life, decay constant and exponential models. Detection, penetration and ionization connect the mathematics to practice.

Mass defect and binding energy explain the energy released when heavy nuclei split. Chain reactions, reactor control, waste and risk connect nuclear physics to society.

Fusion converts mass into energy under extreme conditions. Stellar evolution, the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram and nucleosynthesis explain how stars change and create elements.